By John Moono
Abstract
Oral literature is a rich and diverse form of storytelling that has been passed down through generations in many cultures across the world. It includes various forms of verbal communication such as folktales, myths, legends, proverbs, songs, chants, and rituals. The significance of oral literature lies in its ability to transmit cultural values, beliefs, and knowledge, and to preserve the history and identity of a community. It also serves as a form of entertainment and social cohesion. This paper aims to provide an in-depth understanding of oral literature, its forms, functions, and its relevance in contemporary society.
Introduction
Oral literature refers to the body of storytelling traditions that are communicated orally and transmitted from one generation to the next. It is a fundamental part of human culture, and its origins can be traced back to the beginnings of human communication. Unlike written literature, oral literature is a living tradition that evolves and adapts as it is passed down through the generations. It is a collective creation, shaped by the cultural, social, and historical experiences of a community.
Oral literature takes various forms, including folktales, fables, myths, legends, proverbs, songs, chants, and rituals. These forms may vary depending on the culture and the purpose they serve. For instance, folktales may serve as entertainment, while rituals may have a religious significance. The significance of oral literature lies not only in its ability to entertain but also in its role in preserving cultural heritage and transmitting cultural values, beliefs, and knowledge. In this paper, we will explore the significance of oral literature and its various forms in detail.
Forms of Oral Literature
Folktales
Folktales are traditional stories, passed down through generations by word of mouth. They are usually narrated for entertainment but also serve as a way to teach morals and values. These stories often feature anthropomorphic animals, supernatural beings, and larger-than-life heroes and villains. Folktales can be found in almost every culture and can vary greatly in their themes and styles. They are often used to explain natural phenomena, teach life lessons, or entertain listeners.
Myths
Myths are traditional stories that attempt to explain the origin of the world, natural phenomena, or cultural practices. They are often considered sacred and are closely tied to religious beliefs. Myths feature gods, goddesses, and other supernatural beings, and their narratives usually involve extraordinary events and larger-than-life characters. Myths are an important part of a culture’s belief system and serve to provide meaning and purpose to its people.
Oral Literature is the Literature that is passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation. The African continent is very rich in Orature. Myths have been a great part of the African Orature. A myth is a classic or legendary story that usually focuses on a particular hero or event, and explains mysteries of nature, existence of the universe with no true basis. Myths are a part of every culture.
The Northern Province has a number of mythical stories surrounding some famous places and heritage sites in the place.
Here are some of the mythical stories from this part of the country:
- The Tabwa People of Northern Zambia have a sacred place known as the Balancing Stones in the Nsumbu National Park in Nsama District near the shores of Lake Tanganyika where the Fishing god resides. Fishermen usually have a ceremony before the fishing season seeking good fortune from the fishing good.
- The Lungu people of Mpulungu District in Northern Zambia believe in the ‘Water Spirit of Kapembwa’ who stays in Kapembwa village. Kapembwa is said to have been the protector of travellers across the Tanganyika and in the past it is believed that Virgins were thrown off the cliff to appease the Spirit of Kapembwa.
- The Spirit of Mutumuna is found at the Chishimba Falls of Kasama District in Northern Zambia. The Spirit is said to be living south of the falls in the Shrine. Chitemwene is the Chief Priest who tenders the shrine making a fire that never goes out. Visitors to the Mutumuna Falls of the Chishimba Falls are forbidden from insulting each other, having sexual interconnectedness or fighting each other while within the falls premises as a way of show respect to the Spirit of Mutumuna.
- The Ntumbacushi Falls in Kawambwa District of Northern Zambia are a series of falls in Luapula where the Chishinga people have a sacred space at the Falls and believe that the water from there has the ability to rid of whoever bathes in it of bad luck. Chiefs and future chiefs are said to bathe in it for the same reason before their installation as chiefs.
Oral Myths have been a huge part of the Oral literature, written and visual story telling in many literally works for thousands of years. Humans particularly Africans have always used Myths to explain natural phenomena and life’s mysteries.
The passage below gives an example a Myth and a Ritual in the Quills of Desire
As a little boy of eight, Wiza had prayed to the gods to let him had started appealing to the gods and the ancestral spirits to let him go to Secondary School.
On the day before the beginning of the final primary school-leaving examinations he had bravely gone alone to the home of Kuzuke the God of prosperity and the future. Kuzuke existed in the shape of a large python whose home was a scary undergrowth of creepers, South of the homestead. There, the little boy Wiza had knelt on the ground, a little distance from the undergrowth. With his head in a bowed position and hands resting on his thighs, he praised the god Kuzuke for his kindness.
Then, humbly, he requested the god to light his way and let him pass the coming examinations well enough to get a place at Secondary School. He also informed the god that for placement, his first choice was Kenneth Kaunda Secondary School in Chinsali.
That night he slept facing the roof. It was important to sleep like that because the ancestral spirits might want to tell him something about tomorrow’s examination while he was asleep. The spirits would not communicate if one was sleeping on one’s side or belly.
In the morning Wiza was up before sunrise, ready to start the usual three-kilometre journey through the bush to Polo Primary School. He rubbed his face and arms with a watery concoction his mother had supplied the previous evening. The concoction was to make his eyes and brains sharper during the examination. Then he slid a pair of dry mbulwe sticks and one unused matchstick in his hair, just above the forehead, making sure the sticks were so hidden in his hair that no one could see them. That was the medicine for correct answers. Thus he left his homestead.
This mythical excerpt is from the Quills of Desire by Binwell Sinyangwe on Page 5
Legends
Legends are similar to myths in that they often involve supernatural beings and extraordinary events, but they are based on real people or events. They are a mix of fact and fiction and are often used to explain historical events or to honour heroic figures. Legends are often exaggerated and have been passed down through oral tradition, making it difficult to distinguish between fact and fiction. They are an important part of a culture’s history and identity.
Folklore
Folklore refers to the traditional beliefs, customs, and practices of a culture that have been passed down through generations. It encompasses a wide range of narratives, including folktales, legends, myths, proverbs, and songs. Folklore covers the everyday aspects of a culture, from superstitions and rituals to traditional crafts and games. It is an important way for a community to preserve its traditions and identity.
Proverbs
Proverbs are short, traditional sayings that offer advice or express a general truth or wisdom. They are often based on common experiences and are used to teach moral lessons or to provide guidance in everyday situations. Proverbs are an important part of oral literature as they are passed down from generation to generation, reflecting a culture’s values and beliefs. They are often used in storytelling and are a creative way to convey cultural wisdom and knowledge.
Examples of some African proverbs
When a child washes his hands, he can feed with elders. Chinua Achebe in Things Fall Apart
- The oilskin of the house is not for rubbing in the foreskin of strangers -Ngugi wa Thiongo in the River Between
- My son life is like a queue, with patience your turn will always come. Take care of your neck because beads to wear around it are as easy to find as the droppings of a Chicken -Binwell Sinyangwe in the Quills of Desire
- A mind soak in ipala has no secrets- Kachinga Sichizya in the Uneasy Yoke
- The day a Chick hatches you can tell it will grow into a hen- Chinua Achebe in Things Fall Apart
Songs
Songs are a form of oral literature that uses music and rhythm to convey a narrative or express emotions. They can be traditional or contemporary and can serve different purposes, such as entertainment, storytelling, or cultural preservation. Songs can be found in all cultures and are often closely tied to a culture’s history and traditions. They are a powerful way to preserve cultural heritage and to pass down stories and beliefs to future generations.
Fables
Fables are short, allegorical tales that often feature animals as characters and are meant to teach a moral lesson. These stories have been passed down through oral tradition for centuries and can be found in many different cultures around the world. One of the most well-known collections of fables is Aesop’s Fables, which originated in ancient Greece but are still popular in modern times.
Fables often have simple plots and are used to teach young children about values such as honesty, kindness, and hard work. They often use animals as characters because they are relatable and their actions can easily represent human behavior. For example, a fable may feature a fox who is cunning and sly, teaching children the lesson that being clever can sometimes lead to trouble.
The structure of a fable typically includes a clear beginning, middle, and end. The beginning introduces the characters and sets the scene, the middle presents a problem or conflict, and the end provides a resolution and a moral lesson. This structure is easy to remember, making fables a popular form of oral literature for teaching and passing down cultural values.
Some well-known fables include “The Tortoise and the Hare,” which teaches the moral that slow and steady wins the race, and “The Ant and the Grasshopper,” which teaches the importance of hard work and preparation.
Lullabies
Lullabies are soothing songs or poems that are sung or recited to children to help them fall asleep. They have been a part of human culture for centuries and are found in many different forms in different cultures around the world. Lullabies are often passed down through oral tradition, with mothers and caregivers teaching them to their children.
One of the main purposes of lullabies is to provide comfort and security to young children. They often have repetitive and soothing melodies that can help calm a crying or fussy child. The lyrics of lullabies may also include positive and reassuring messages, such as “hush little baby, don’t you cry, mama’s gonna buy you a mockingbird.”
In addition to helping children fall asleep, lullabies can also serve as a way to pass down cultural values and traditions. They may contain references to cultural beliefs, practices, and customs, and can help children develop a sense of their cultural identity.
Elegy
An elegy is a mournful or melancholic poem or song that is meant to honour and remember the deceased. This form of oral literature has been a part of human culture for thousands of years and has been used to commemorate loved ones who have passed away. Elegies can be found in many cultures, and may take different forms such as a ballad, a dirge, or a lament.
Elegies often express feelings of grief, loss, and sorrow, and can serve as a way for individuals and communities to cope with the death of a loved one. They may also include reflections on the life of the deceased and can be used as a way to celebrate their memory and keep their legacy alive.
The structure of an elegy can vary, but it often includes a description of the deceased and their life, expressions of sadness and loss, and reflections on the impact the person had on others. Elegies may also incorporate religious or cultural beliefs about death and the afterlife.
Some famous examples of elegies include “In Memoriam A.H.H.” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson, written in memory of his close friend Arthur Henry Hallam, and “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” by Walt Whitman, written after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln.
Rituals
Rituals are a form of oral literature that involve symbolic actions, words, and gestures that are performed in a specific order for a particular purpose. They are found in every culture around the world and are used to mark significant life events such as births, deaths, weddings, and coming-of-age ceremonies.
Rituals can be seen as a form of performance, with a set structure and specific roles for participants. They often involve a combination of storytelling, music, dance, and other forms of artistic expression. Oral tradition is a key aspect of rituals, as they are passed down from generation to generation and help maintain cultural traditions and beliefs.
One of the main purposes of rituals is to bring a sense of meaning and order to significant life events, helping individuals and communities cope with change and transition. They may also serve as a way to reinforce cultural values and beliefs and create a sense of social cohesion.
Examples of rituals found in different cultures include in the River Between, the Circumcision of both boys an girls in which Waiyaki and Muthoni take part is an example of a Ritual. In the same text, the conversion of Joshua to Christianity signified by his baptism is another example of a ritual.
Allegory
Allegory is a form of oral literature that uses symbolic characters, events, or actions to convey a moral or political message. The term “allegory” comes from the Greek word “allegoria,” meaning “speaking otherwise.” This literary device has been used since ancient times to teach and inspire people through the use of metaphor. In this form of literature, the writer or speaker creates a fictional world that mirrors the real world, and conveys a deeper meaning or message through the actions and interactions of the characters.
One of the earliest examples of allegory can be found in the ancient Hindu text, the Katha Upanishad, where the story of the chariot represents the human body, with the horses representing the senses and the charioteer representing the intellect. This allegory teaches the importance of controlling the senses and using intellect to make wise decisions.
The use of allegory is not limited to ancient literature, as it has been used throughout history in various forms of oral literature, such as fables, parables, and myths. Fables, such as Aesop’s Fables, use animal characters to convey moral lessons to the readers or listeners. For example, the fable of “The Tortoise and the Hare” teaches the lesson of slow and steady wins the race. Similarly, parables, which are short allegorical stories, were used by Jesus in the Bible to teach spiritual and moral lessons. The parable of “The Good Samaritan” teaches the lesson of compassion and kindness towards others.
Allegory has also been used in mythological stories to explain natural or supernatural phenomena. In Greek mythology, the story of Prometheus stealing fire from the gods and giving it to humans is an allegory for the advancement of knowledge and progress of humanity. Similarly, the story of Pandora’s Box is an allegory for the consequences of giving in to temptation and curiosity.
One of the most famous examples of allegory is “The Pilgrim’s Progress” by John Bunyan. This Christian allegory follows the journey of a character named Christian as he travels through different landscapes and encounters various obstacles on his quest for salvation. Each character and event in the story is symbolic of a moral or spiritual lesson, making it a powerful form of religious literature.
Allegory is not limited to written literature, but it also has a prominent place in oral literature. In many cultures, including Native American, African, and Asian cultures, allegorical stories and legends were passed down through generations as a way to teach values and beliefs. These stories often revolve around animal or supernatural characters and their interactions with humans, providing a deeper understanding of the culture’s traditions and beliefs.
One such example is the Native American legend of “The Two Wolves.” This allegorical story teaches the lesson of the internal battle between good and evil by using the characters of two wolves fighting within a person’s soul. The wolf that wins is the one that the person chooses to feed, symbolizing the importance of making good choices.
In addition to teaching moral or spiritual lessons, allegory can also be used to convey political or social messages, often in the form of satire. George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” is a famous allegory for the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism. The animals in the story represent different groups in society and their struggle for power and equality.
Another example of allegory in political literature is Dr. Seuss’ “The Lorax,” which is a critique of corporate greed and its impact on the environment. The story follows the Once-ler, who destroys the environment to make a profit, and the Lorax, who speaks for the trees and the environment. This allegory teaches the importance of preserving the environment and the consequences of unchecked capitalism.
Allegory is a powerful form of oral literature that has been used throughout history to teach moral, spiritual, political, and social messages. Through the use of symbolic characters, events, and actions, allegory provides a deeper understanding of the world and its complexities. Whether used in ancient religious texts, fables, myths, or modern literature, allegory continues to be a valuable tool for conveying important messages to audiences of all ages and cultures.
Parable
Parables are a form of oral literature that are short stories that convey a moral lesson or religious teaching. They are often told in order to illustrate a moral or religious principle and to teach a lesson or truth. Parables can be found in many different cultures and religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism. They are also commonly used in secular contexts as a way to deliver universal truths and life lessons.
The word “parable” comes from the Greek word “parabole,” which means “comparison” or “analogy.” This reflects the nature of parables as stories that use familiar and relatable situations to convey deeper meanings and teachings. Parables are often simple and easy to understand, making them accessible to audiences of all ages and backgrounds.
One of the key characteristics of a parable is its use of symbolism and metaphor. The characters and events in a parable often represent abstract concepts or ideas. For example, in the parable of the Good Samaritan in the Bible, the characters of the priest and the Levite represent the religious leaders who fail to help the wounded man, while the Samaritan represents the outcast who shows compassion and mercy. This use of symbolism allows the parable to convey a deeper message without being didactic or preachy.
Another important element of parables is their use of exaggeration and hyperbole. This serves to make the story more engaging and memorable, as well as to emphasize the central lesson or message. In the parable of the Prodigal Son, for example, the father’s extravagant reception of his wayward son highlights the theme of forgiveness and unconditional love.
Parables are also often characterized by a surprise twist or unexpected ending. This element of surprise keeps the audience engaged and allows for a memorable impact. In the parable of the Mustard Seed, the small and seemingly insignificant seed grows into a large and sturdy tree, representing the growth and power of the kingdom of God.
Another key feature of parables is their flexibility and adaptability. They can be told and retold in various contexts, allowing for different interpretations and applications. This makes them a powerful tool for teaching and conveying important messages to diverse audiences.
Parables are also a form of oral literature that is meant to be shared and passed down through generations. They were traditionally told and retold by storytellers and were eventually recorded in written form. However, they are still meant to be told and heard aloud, as their impact is often lost if simply read silently.
In addition to their use in religious and moral teachings, parables have also been used in other ways. They can be used to convey political or social commentary, as seen in the parables of the ancient Greek philosopher Aesop. They have also been used in literature and popular culture, such as in the works of writer Franz Kafka and in the TV series “Lost.”
Parables are a form of oral literature that use simple stories to convey complex ideas and teachings. They are characterized by their use of symbolism, exaggeration, surprise, and flexibility. Parables have played an important role in many cultures and religions, and their timeless messages continue to resonate with audiences today.
Detailed Literature Review
Oral literature has been studied extensively by researchers from various disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, folklore, and literature. The earliest studies of oral literature can be traced back to the 19th century, when scholars like Wilhelm Grimm, J.G. von Herder, and Jacob Grimm collected and documented folktales and other forms of oral literature. Since then, there has been a growing interest in the study of oral literature, and today, it is a well-established field of research.
The study of oral literature has been approached from different perspectives. Some researchers have focused on the structural elements of oral literature, while others have explored its functions and meanings within a cultural context. In this paper, we will examine the significance of oral literature from both these perspectives.
One of the earliest and most influential works on the study of oral literature is “The Morphology of the Folktale” by Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp. Published in 1928, this book analyzed the structure of Russian fairy tales and identified common themes and plot elements. Propp’s work laid the foundation for the structuralism approach to the study of oral literature, which focuses on the formal elements of stories, such as characters, plot, and motifs.
In contrast, the contextual approach to the study of oral literature focuses on the cultural and social significance of these stories. This approach acknowledges that oral literature is not just a form of entertainment but also serves important social and cultural functions. For instance, in their book “The Interpretation of Cultures,” anthropologist Clifford Geertz and literary critic Hayden White argue that oral literature is a form of symbolic communication that expresses and reinforces the beliefs, values, and traditions of a community.
Another significant development in the study of oral literature is the concept of “performance.” Performance refers to the act of storytelling or the re-enactment of a traditional ritual, and it is an essential aspect of oral literature. According to folklorist Richard Bauman, oral literature should be seen as a “performance event,” with the storyteller or performer playing a crucial role in the transmission of these stories. Performance, therefore, adds a dynamic element to oral literature, making it more than just a collection of texts.
Oral literature, also known as oral tradition or oral storytelling, is a form of storytelling that has been passed down through generations through the spoken word rather than written texts. It encompasses a wide range of cultural practices, including folktales, myths, legends, proverbs, songs, chants, and epics. While the definition of oral literature may vary among scholars, there is a general consensus that it is a dynamic and evolving form of communication that is specific to a particular group, culture or community.
One of the earliest and most influential definitions of oral literature comes from British folklorist and anthropologist, William Bascom. He stated that oral literature refers to “those forms of literature, which are orally transmitted, and which exist in no other form.” Bascom emphasized the importance of the oral tradition in preserving cultural heritage and transmitting knowledge from one generation to the next. He also recognized the richness and complexity of oral literature, stating that it is not limited to just spoken words, but also includes performance elements such as intonation, gesture, and music.
Another definition of oral literature was put forth by Nigerian scholar, Isidore Okpewho, who argued that it is “the collection of speeches, songs, stories, and other verbal art forms that have been handed down from one generation to another.” Okpewho highlighted the communal nature of oral literature, stating that it is created and performed by and for the community, rather than by an individual author. He also pointed out that oral literature is not static, but is constantly evolving through the creative input of multiple storytellers.
In contrast to Bascom and Okpewho, British literary scholar Ruth Finnegan viewed oral literature as a broader category that includes not only folklore and traditional tales but also contemporary forms such as radio dramas, television shows, and films. She defined oral literature as “any communication that is passed down and publicly shared by word of mouth, whether it takes the form of songs, stories, drama, or other art forms.” Finnegan’s definition highlights the fluidity and adaptability of oral literature, as it can incorporate new technologies and mediums.
Another perspective on oral literature comes from American folklorist Alan Dundes, who defined it as “folklore that has been transmitted orally, that is, by speech rather than by written or printed means.” Dundes emphasized the importance of the oral tradition in folklore studies, stating that it is the primary means by which folktales, folk songs, and other forms of folklore are preserved and transmitted. He also pointed out that oral literature is not limited to any specific culture or region, but is a universal human phenomenon.
Finally, African scholar Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o offered a more political interpretation of oral literature, stating that it is “the literature of militancy and struggle, the literature of resistance and resilience.” He argued that oral literature is a powerful tool for marginalized communities to resist and challenge dominant narratives and ideologies. In this view, oral literature is not just a form of art, but a means of social and political activism.
The definition of oral literature may vary among scholars, but they all recognize its significance in preserving cultural heritage, transmitting knowledge, and expressing creativity. It is a dynamic and evolving form of communication that is specific to a particular group and is constantly shaped by the cultural and social context in which it is performed.
Discussion on Oral Literature
Forms of Oral Literature: Oral literature takes various forms, depending on the culture and the purpose it serves. For instance, folktales and fables are short narratives that often involve supernatural elements and teach a moral lesson. Myths and legends are stories that explain the origin of the world and natural phenomena and often feature gods and heroes. Proverbs are short sayings that convey wisdom and are often used to teach a moral lesson. Songs and chants are musical forms of oral literature that are used for entertainment, ritual, and social cohesion. Finally, rituals are symbolic actions that are performed to communicate with the supernatural or to reinforce social norms and values.
Functions of Oral Literature: The significance of oral literature lies in its various functions within a community. One of its primary functions is to preserve cultural heritage and identity. Oral literature is often used to pass down the history, traditions, and beliefs of a community from one generation to the next. In this way, it helps to maintain a sense of continuity and connection to the past.
Oral literature also serves as a means of social cohesion within a community. By sharing stories, songs, and rituals, people create a sense of belonging and unity. These forms of oral literature bring people together and foster a shared cultural identity.
Moreover, oral literature is a powerful tool for transmitting cultural values and beliefs. Through stories, proverbs, and songs, people learn about the moral codes and social norms of their culture. For instance, in African cultures, proverbs play a significant role in teaching children about acceptable behavior, encouraging hard work, and promoting communal values.
Another important function of oral literature is entertainment. Oral literature has always been a form of entertainment, and it continues to serve this purpose in contemporary society. Folktales, songs, and chants are often performed in social gatherings, festivals, and other cultural events, providing people with a means of leisure and enjoyment.
Finally, oral literature also serves as a form of resistance and cultural revival. In many societies, oral literature has been used as a means of preserving cultural practices and values that have been threatened by colonialism, globalization, and modernization. By keeping these traditions alive, oral literature helps to safeguard the cultural identity of a community.
Significance of Oral Literature in Contemporary Society: Despite the rise of written literature and digital media, oral literature continues to play a significant role in contemporary society. In many cultures, the oral tradition is still the primary means of communication and transmission of knowledge. Moreover, with the resurgence of interest in traditional cultures and indigenous knowledge, oral literature has gained even more significance.
Furthermore, the study of oral literature has led to a better understanding of the role of storytelling in human communication. Researchers have found that oral literature plays a crucial role in the formation of cultural identity, social cohesion, and the transmission of knowledge. By acknowledging the significance of oral literature, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the diversity and richness of human culture.
Conclusion
In conclusion, oral literature is a vital part of human culture that has been passed down through generations in many societies. Its forms, functions, and significance have been studied by researchers from various disciplines, revealing its importance in preserving cultural heritage and identity, promoting social cohesion, and transmitting cultural values and knowledge. In contemporary society, oral literature continues to play a significant role, reminding us of the power of storytelling and the enduring relevance of traditional knowledge.
References
1. Bauman, R. (1977). Verbal Art as Performance. American Anthropologist, 77(2), 290-311.
2. Geertz, C. (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.
3. Propp, V. (1928). The Morphology of the Folktale. Austin: University of Texas Press.
4. White, H. (1973). The forms of the Folk Tale. In T. Bahti (Ed.), The Organization of Literature (pp. 3-30). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
The author is the English Language Editor of the LATAZ National Executive Committee. He is also a teacher of English Language and Literature in English based in Mbala, Northern Zambia.